Douglas Frame metaphysics, philosophy of religion

What are the paths of Yoga?

Yoga mean “to yoke,” especially with God. There are many paths to yoga, and the path one chooses depends on one’s personal inclinations and attitudes. The way one approaches God is very different among different people. When being yoked to God, it is not that God has changed when one apprehends God, but rather ones way of understanding God is different.

What is Yoga?

When one thinks of yoga oftentimes one thinks of people on floor mats stretching every which way. This yoga is called Hatha Yoga. But in traditional Indian thought Hatha Yoga is simply used as preparation for the other yogas. Hatha Yoga is the most popular practice in the West and other yogic practices are little known. But there is much more to Yoga than simply Hatha Yoga. Yoga originated in India and literally means to yoke. One yokes their souls to God. But there are many different paths to God.

Yoga’s Four Paths

One may think that all one has to do is choose a path to God, but usually the path chooses the devotee. For example there are those who God is most naturally known through the heart (e.g., Bhakti Yoga). There are others whose abilities accent the use of thought to know God (e.g., Jnana Yoga). There are those interested in mystical experiences doing psychophysical exercises (i.e., mediation) to achieve God Consciousness (e.g., Raja Yoga). Finally one may be more inclined to dedicate the fruits of ones labor to God, and rather practice work without selfishness, out of devotion to God (e.g., Karma Yoga). In fact all of these practices aim at God consciousness.

Hindu Ways To Find God

There is no right way to achieve union with God. It simply depends on one’s spiritual inclinations. Also no way is superior to the other. It is rather like deciding to travel to a foreign country and being undecided whether one is going to fly, drive, go by submarine, or walk. The destination is the same, but the way one gets there is different.

People most often think of yoga as being strictly a Hindu practice, but in fact yoga refers to the way people approach God. For example a religion that would be considered by Hindus to be a Bhakti Yoga would be Christianity or Islam. This is because in these religions one worships God. Jnana Yoga on the other hand could be the philosophical musings of Saint Thomas Aquinas.

Indian Ways of Knowing God

According to the Indian school of thought, one is not limited to simply one path to God. If one is so inclined they can strive to be united with God by choosing all of the paths listed. This would take an exceptional person, but it can be done, and one could live the life of an enlightenedsiddhi.

One interesting distinction that is made in Indian thought is that it is ultimately monistic; that is everything is One. This then would be considered an impersonal relationship with God. One cannot cultivate a relationship with something that is fundamentally oneself. It is said in Indian thought That Thou Art On the other hand Bhakti Yogists worship God. One can only worship something that is beyond you. This then would be a personal relationship with God. This defines the difference between a personal and impersonal relationship with God.

Understanding the Different Yogas

Described previously is the difference between having a personal relationship with God (Bhakti Yoga) and having an impersonal one (Jnana Yoga). How can God be both? How can God be both out there and then also constituting ones very marrow? Ultimately according to Indian thought the most complete understanding of God is monistic (e.g., everything is one), but having a relationship with God is possible as well (e.g., dualistic). It is not that God is different to each individual, but rather the way one comes to know God is different.

Indian religion is often thought to be polytheistic, but what many don’t recognize is that the many Gods in Indian thought are simply different manifestations of the one and eternal God. Similarly, one can come to know a manifested God in a personal way or an impersonal way. In the same way someone understands God as being personal or impersonal, God is understood by the individual depending on ones’ nature which determines how they relate to God, not residing in God itself as it manifests in ones lives. Just as God is infinite the ways of knowing God are infinite as well.

Sources:

Honderich, Ted Ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Smith, Huston. The Worlds Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. Harper Collins Publishers: New York, 1991.

Vivekananda, Swami. Hinduism. Sri Ramakrishna Math Printing Press: India, (n.d.),

Douglas Frame metaphysics, political philosophy

Hegel’s Master/Slave Dialectic


The master slave relationship is a common theme throughout history. Many ages embraced slavery, and although the characteristics of slavery may have been somewhat different during different ages, the superiority of the master and the subservience of the slave was a constant. While many great thinkers have considered this relationship, certain thinkers stand out.

The Master and the Slave

This relationship has been a common theme of philosophy, whether it be by Aesop talking about reason being the character of the master, and passion that of the slave. Slavery was common in ancient Greece and in feudal societies. Also references to the master and slave have been most apparent with Rousseau, Fichte, and most famously Hegel. Also discussing this relationship is Nietzsche, who had a different take than others, where the master is independent, creative and excellent, while the slave is servile and mediocre.

Hegel and Nietzsche are probably the most famous philosophers to talk about the relationship between master and slave, but Hegel’s formulation was wrapped in idealism. Karl Marx was most certainly influenced by Hegel, in his more concrete and materialistic writings about revolution.

Hegel and the Master and Slave

Hegel’s presentation of the master and slave in his dialectic is the most allegorical. Hegel begins in explaining that one only gains self-consciousness by being engaged with an “other”. By seeing the other, one recognizes that this other is different from themselves, and gives oneself identity through the other, and therefore themselves. One’s encounter with another for the first time sets off a dialectic where both consciousness’ are engaged. This engagement results in both finding their place in the world.

These two are locked in a form of conflict, where their position in the world will be decided by how this conflict is resolved. While both may be focused on being superior, the way that this antipathy can be resolved is for one to “give in”. The fact of the matter is that some people value liberty over life, and others value life over liberty. The newly self-conscious being who values liberty over life becomes the master, and the newly self-conscious individual who values life over liberty becomes the slave who submits to the master to survive.

Hegel’s Dialectic

In this unfolding dynamic one begins as a conscious being (not yet self-conscious), where no conflict exists. Yet when the two individuals encounter each other there is a sense of conflict where a contradiction emerges where both cannot be the master or both be the slave. Out of this conflict comes the resolution where one emerges the master and the other emerges the slave. This sequence is part of the dialectical process. Simply put the dialectic moves through thesis (e.g., prior to the encounter), antithesis (e.g., the encounter) and synthesis (e.g. the resolution where one is the master and the other the slave).

Yet the process does not end here. Now that their positions have become apparent in the world (e.g., as each individual being either the master or the slave), the dynamic has changed. Now the master produces nothing and lives off the slave (e.g., synthesis). The master has no contact with nature. The slave on the other hand works with nature and produces something of value, even though it is only used by the master, and this handiwork from nature gives the slave true knowledge about nature (e.g., antithesis) which the master cannot hope to duplicate. Marx’s revolution results in the synthesis with his secular worldview where society is run by the proletariat in a workers paradise (e.g., synthesis).

Hegel and Karl Marx

Marx extrapolates from Hegel. Marx, ultimately a student of Hegel, states that when the slave or proletariat becomes so alienated from life and made so miserable by their existence, with the accumulation of knowledge that the proletariat attains through their work, this enables the proletariat to overthrow the master, and form a new society.

While it seems Hegel thought that inequities in the world could be solved without revolution, Marx felt revolution was inevitable in the process of Historical Materialism. While Hegel’s idealism points out the origins of the master and slave, Marx’s materialism aimed to consummate this relationship and to overthrow the master.

While Hegel brought the relationship between master and slave, as a allegory for mans achievement of self-consciousness, Marx largely ignored Hegel’s idealism, and embraced materialism to bring Hegel’s abstract dialectic to history in his theory of historical materialism.

Resources:

Hegel, G. W. F. Phenomenology of Spirit. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1977

Honderick, Ted., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1995

Inwood, M. J. Ed., Hegel Selections. Macmillan Publishing Company: United States, 1989

Douglas Frame metaphysics

What is the Nature of Reality?

Metaphysics refers to the nature of reality. There are a lot of misunderstandings about what metaphysics is and what it stands for. Some people think metaphysics refers to new age religions. Others think metaphysics is only about God.The word metaphysics literally means beyond physics. This word coined encompassed Aristotle’s work which did not fit in with his writings on nature.

Idealism and Materialism

The study of metaphysics has become a vast enterprise where things are not always the way they seem. Often in studying metaphysics one is drawn into quandaries and paradox. Metaphysics is generally broken down into idealism and materialism; that which actually is real are either ideas or matter and not both (i.e., matter and ideas are dissimilar, discrete, entities).

There are problems with both these conceptions of reality. With idealism one’s perceptions and understanding of the world are intangible and rely on often fleeting ideas. On the other hand materialism is that which is real is material, but this falls into a quandary between matter and spirit, where matter is deterministic but the spirit is free.

Other Problems With Idealism and Materialism

Another problem, referred to as the veil of perception, is that if matter is something that one perceives, then how can one really know that matter exists as we perceive it if it exists independent of the senses, and the only way one can know it is through the senses? This is one argument for idealism. Further if one can not see the thing as it exists in itself, how can one know it exists at all? This is a natural outgrowth of the problem of the veil of perception.

Yet if all is ideas, then how can one account for the seeming permanence and stability in the world? Also, if all that one perceives are ideas, then if no one is there to perceive them, then the ideas cannot exist (e.g., if a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound?). According to idealism, there is no access to reality apart from what the mind provides us with.

What is Monism and Pluralism?

One common question metaphysics addresses is is reality monistic or pluralistic. Monism is the idea that everything is essentially one. An argument against monism is that how can something be one thing only, and yet be constantly changing as things appear to do in the world? A similar problem with pluralism, where there is more than one state of reality; if things are varied in nature then how can one find anything essential?

Metaphysics addresses many problems when examining the nature of reality. Much change has occurred since Aristotle’s writings beyond nature served as a place holder. Whether that which is essential is matter or ideas, or if monism or pluralism more adequately explain reality, metaphysics has been a source of much debate when examining what one means by reality, as well as what reality truly is.

References

Honderich, T. (Ed.) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press: Oxford 1995

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Problem of Perception. Retrieved on July, 10, 2011 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem/#3.1

Douglas Frame metaphysics, political philosophy

Marx’s Communist Revolution


According to Karl Marx, the revolution of the worker or proletariat is a natural outcome brought about by the acquired consciousness of the proletariat and the economic pressures of capitalism. In the unfolding of history (according to Marx, Historical Materialism), a time will arise where the bourgeoisie (e.g., the landed class) would be overthrown by the proletariat (e.g., the landless class).

While communism marks the end of the age of decadent capitalism according to Marx, another viewpoint accepted by Marx is that throughClass Struggle revolution can be achieved. With the efforts of the landless class the capitalist bosses would be overthrown and a worker’s paradise would ensue.

The Metaphysics of History

Marx’s Historical Materialism, like Hegel’s “Phenomenology of Spirit”, shows an unfolding of history. In Hegel’s view, spirit or mind is instrumental in the unfolding of history, but according to Marx, matter is the driving force behind history(1). While there is controversy surrounding what Hegel meant by spirit or mind in the context of his phenomenology, there is little doubt what Marx meant by materialism(2). When Marx is talking about matter, he is referring to the raw stuff of which things are made.

The important thing with matter is one’s relation to this matter, especially matter shaped by the proletariat, that is robbed by the capitalist bosses. Matter drives history through the continual myriad transformations of matter, and in the days of capitalism, the types of production determine social relations, and more specifically individual thought.

Historical Materialism(3)

There are two basic metaphysical positions one can take, one being that that which constitutes the essence of reality are ideas, and the other, that which is most basic or essential is matter. In idealism, ideas are thought to be dependent on someone or something having the ideas. Without the subject nothing can be said to exist. This is not a problem for Marx. Marx’s theory is that matter exists whether someone is there to perceive it or not.

Everything that is thought of as mind or spirit is driven by matter according to Marx. Under capitalism the thoughts we have, the zeitgeist of a particular era, are all dependent on the modes of production(4). As the modes of production change, so do the social relations, and these relations change unceasingly. Our relation to matter determines our understanding of the world, and the way we understand each other.

Marx gives the example of commodity fetishism, where consumers desire certain material goods. These goods become a commodity, and because of this they seem to have intrinsic value. The commodity becomes almost a living thing. The commodity is reified(5). Marx gives the example that gold has no intrinsic value, but its desirability for the purchase of things gives it value, as it seems in itself. This commodity takes on a life of its own, becoming a source of affluence and power, and is no longer simply matter.

Communist Revolution and the Class Struggle View

The primary problem with Marx’s theory of revolution is that on the one hand the transformations in the material relations are constantly driving the unfolding of history (i.e., Historical Materialism). Eventually capitalism results in monopolies, and ultimately world monopoly; then comes revolution, and the dictatorship of the proletariat. On the other hand what role does class struggle play in the equation? For if the end of revolution is not necessary, and rather the cries of injustice result in substantial benefit for the worker, then how can communist revolution be essential or even be claimed to be important?

Further, not only is the class struggle view a problem for Marx’s theory of revolution, but there are also more practical considerations. If revolution is inevitable, then would it be necessary for people to “struggle” to overthrow the government? Also, if struggle is required, then it seems the material (i.e., social) relations of the productive forces do not drive history at all, and therefore do not lead to an inevitable communist revolution. It is impossible to have it both ways.

Marx’s Utopia

The disagreeable solution is that revolution can happen in intransigent capitalist countries, but only as the result of sustained class struggle. It is conceivable in a world proletariat revolution, that the revolution could be smashed. It is also conceivable that capitalism could evolve into something more beneficent because of worker’s pressure on the capitalists, delaying or denying communist revolution. After a revolution, a communist paradise then would not necessarily follow (perhaps because of some lack of ideological purity), and this viewpoint would be useful in demonstrating how such repressive regimes likeStalin or Pol Pot could come out of communist revolution.

The argument then can be made that communist revolution is not always a good thing, which Marx would most certainly reject. Marx’s theory of historical materialism and the promise of a coming paradise is then relegated to little more than a well intentioned fantasy. Even the reductionist materialist position of communists is called into question.

Endnotes

1 Karl Marx, “Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy in General” Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved on August 13, 2011 from http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/hegel.htm

2 Karl Marx, , “Afterward to the Second German Edition [Abstract]”

Capital Volume 1, Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved on August 13, 2011 from http://www.marxists.org/subject/dialectics/marx-engels/capital-afterward.htm 

3 Mick Brookes, “Historical Materialism” Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved on August 13, 2011 from http://www.marxist.com/History-old/historicalMaterialism.htm

4 MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism: Glossary of Terms. Marxists Internet Archives. Retrieved on August 13, 2011 from http://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/m/o.htm#mode-production

5 Reification. Retrieved on August 13, 2011 from http://it.stlawu.edu/~global/glossary/reification.a.html

Douglas Frame epistemology, metaphysics, political philosophy

Paradigms of Evolution and Material Force

The nature of self determines not only ones attitude toward the world, but how one constructs such a world that aligns with ones imperatives. With physical change through evolution, comes functional change in morphology, social relations and individuality, all of which drives history. With evolutionary fitness the species survives to pass on its genetic endowment. Modern science has found strong evidence for evolution. When evolution occurs, the species change due to environmental pressures. When individuals do not become adaptive, fail to reproduce, they are eliminated from the gene pool. Through changes in the species’ genus, future species bears little resemblance to the original form. Not only is the physical structure effected by material pressure, but also changes come about in the dynamic of life of an individual species, or the telos driven individual life.

The Varieties of Evolutionary Change

Evolution is not particular to the physical change in the species. Any change in physical structure has a corresponding change in function of the species, be its historical path, or its individual life. All mutations that result in the ability of the species to be adaptive, results from environmental pressure on the physical aspect of the species. Whether this change is genetic-morphological, quasi-historical or personal,  this continuum all depends on the material pressures on the physical structure of the species, but is manifested in different ways.

These three approaches, our biological history, our socio-cultural history and our personal life journey are not incompatible. One can see them all as ones being reaching out, in some sort of telos, toward a better more fulfilled existence. Can one only take the materialist scientific view of evolution? To reduce change to simply the physical structure of the species, ignores the contribution of these material forces to society and personality. When one ignores the contribution of material forces on society and personality, one must also ignore the result of primary material effect on physical structure. All three, the genetic-morphological, the quasi-historical and the telos driven life, each in turn, begin with the material forces.

As the changes in the body are driven by the material forces, so too does ones psyche find the way to transmute these changes in physical form and the implication for changes in function. The increase in the mass of the frontal cortex of the human brain has enabled it to survive, but also it has made itself acutely aware of others.

If a species is to survive, then a social structure must be developed that enhances evolutionary fitness, for example through availability of resources to the favored, including food, shelter, and the ability to procreate. To enable this complexity in society necessitates the differentiation of individuals in different skills and skill levels. The success of the social organ, is dependent on the health and adaptiveness, where it results in a sort of gestalt. These dynamics drive how the world is organized, and how the virtues of the individuals are driven by material forces.

Hegels Quasi-Historical Evolution

In the quasi-historical approach, Hegels book, The Phenomenology of Spirit addresses the problem of how spirit evolves as a result of changes in social structure. When the individual encounters another, only then can the individual become self-conscious. This interaction builds into a sort of social genealogy of history, which eventually leads to the highest achievements in human history, according to Hegel; religion, philosophy and art.

This unfolding of history relies on certain logic, where there is a stasis, conflict, and then through resolution another period of stasis. This logic of Hegels history, results in different successive social moments where one finds themselves, as well as providing a quasi-historical view of how change comes about socially.

It might be asked how logic can transmute history into progressive phases, resulting in newly unique positions in history. While Hegels in his logic may not address how logic formalizes history, the transitions that Hegel talks about, like his history as a whole, comes about through a harmonious state, followed by a creative tension, which result in a new harmonious state. Such is the nature of change where successive moments resolve into new ones. Historically, moments respond to change in the environment, whether it be the primary effect of the material forces on the genetic-morphology of the species, or the social groupings, which enable and disable genetic fitness of a people.

While Hegels phenomenology of spirit spans human history, the change in physical functioning is minimal over the course of human history, so in speciation the changes are minimal. But the social sphere where the spirit acts, function is defined in the unfolding of history, manifests itself nominally as the result of environmental pressure that are driven by material forces.

Freud and Functionalism

Freud writes about the Id, the Ego and the Superego (Internet, 2010). As the social inclination of a species can be driven by the superego, so can the function of the species, sometimes referred to as the spiritual aspect,  be driven by the material demands, where environmental pressures can change function. Freud talks about the id, which is the most primal impulse, which is moderated by the ego where the superego acts socially. The id drives or is driven by the impulses, including the sexual impulse, which results in procreation and the passing on of the genetic endowment. Also of primary importance is the death instinct or thanatos, which can prevent another from passing on their genetic endowment. These impulses are driven by material forces. The sex impulse is the most primal of the individual drives according to Freud. Without the drive to procreate, a species would cease to exist. The force of the instinct for procreation is the most fundamental of the genetic behaviors that drive fitness.

While often in the occidental tradition when one speaks of spirit, one thinks of a ghostly existence or an immaterial structure that drives behavior. But if the basis for spirit is the result of material forces where form drives function, then the way of behavior, personality and social structure can become that which is adaptive.

Aurobindos Gnosticism and Individual Telos

Similar to Hegel, but an evolution, which takes place in a lifetime, is Aurobindos Gnosticism (Sourcebook, 1957) . This telos driven life unlike Hegel, which is descriptive of the unfolding of human spirit, Aurobindos evolution results in a freeing of consciousness, which too has an impact on social relations, and social relations can help a species survive. While Hegel is descriptive, Aurobindo is proscriptive as the divine life, where a fully actualized existence is possible in ones lifetime. A gnostic life brings about personal accountability and benefits the species through altruism.

Aurobindo asserts that there is an evolution of spirit. In his work The Life Divine it is possible for one to become enlightened in ones lifetime. One does not need to wait to achieve the divine in another transcendental realm. As the individual changes so does the spiritual consciousness. When one is fully realized, then one becomes fully free to act, can therefore make positive adaptive change, which improves adaptive fitness. When action is based on altruism, this increases the fitness of the species as a whole and ensures the species survival.

Whether talking about the evolution of speciation and morphology in the science of evolution, the evolution where form determines function, or the social relations of the history is spirit, all depend on the environmental pressure brought to bear by the material forces. There is no need to exclude one from the other, but rather when evaluating them individually, realize that the span of time, which they act, vary.

The material forces drives history from the explosion of the stars to the birth of life and evolution of species. The existence of human history and individual development forms an ever spiraling up of the human potential in a sort of telos. All are driven by the material forces. All enhance the adaptation of the species to the environmental forces and therefore are part and parcel of adaptive change.

Weltanschauung and Social Darwinism

As scientism permeates Occidental societies, scientific explanation for social behavior have been reduced to Social Darwinism. Spencer took a different tack when describing evolution. Spencer asserted that not only was competition natural interspecies, but that evolution operated as well at the intraspecies level. Survival of the fittest was adapted to explain competition and fitness in Occidental culture (Internet, 2004).

Only when a species, or a segment of the species maintains fitness, can the species survive. There are different worldviews that serve to be adaptive, either cooperative or competitive. In order for a species to survive, it must be more adaptive than other species. While societies that are most cooperative are the most stable, the pressures of the aggressiveness of competitive societies most often result in the destruction of the cooperative cultures.

Sometimes fitness is defined by the power elite as survival of the fittest where the assertion is made that those who are most fit are the power elite. In bastardization of Darwins evolution, competitive attitudes between species are subverted to mean intraspecies competition for survival. This hoarding of the material wealth by the power elite results in greater fitness for the power elite and less so for those who lack adequate access to resources.

In order for the power elite to maintain its grasp on material wealth, the ideas of the ruling class are inculcated by all classes, and this adoption insures that the ruling class maintains its prerogatives. It may be maintained by the power elite that those that constitute this advantaged class, are somehow superior than the lower classes. Ostensibly this intraspecies evolution can weed out those members of society who lack fitness, thus strengthening the social organs as a whole. Unfortunately, such a society often ends up consuming itself, because of its own ideology.

The worldview in such a society adopts the prerogatives of the power elite as their own, and therefore the worldview that is adopted may serve it well in a developing industrial age; but when society shifts into a post-industrial stage, the asserted prerogatives of the power elite become little more than self-serving platitudes. The invisible hand of capitalism, which benefits all (Smith, 2008), becomes the closed fist.

The dynamic of history laid out by Hegel, illustrates the changes that come about in social relations, which determine the birth, growth and death of a moment of historical change, where a decaying society often finds itself either prone to collapse or in revolution as Marx asserts. The particular channeling of the material forces that drive the social relations, determine the Weltanschauung of its citizens and of a culture and the world. At the fall of an empire; through the leadership of the individual, as a savior or destroyer, depends on the culture that preceded it, and what ideology that was embraced. Only then, through transformation in the social relations, adapted in response to the demands of the material forces, can the species maintain fitness and avoid extinction.

Randomness in the Paradigms of Evolution

The question may come up when examining this formulation of change and adaptation, that is physical change, socio-historical change, and an individuals life legacy, one might ask if there can be free consciousness. While the universe seems to depend on constant physical laws, the unfolding of change seems to be of a potential of infinite variety. This becomes possible because of the random nature of change, which can manifest itself in a multivariate number of ways.

With the determinate nature of the laws that drive the universe, the randomness of the outcome of these material pressures result in every new and unique species with different functions, quasi-historical characteristics and distinctive individual functioning within the life community. Just as we cannot find a common thread in determining the coming physical change in the species, neither can one determine where the social construct of history or the individual consciousness and leadership will lead.

Works cited

A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (1957) Aurobindo. edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishan and Charles A. Moore Princeton University Press: Princeton.  Pages 599-609

 Darwin, Charles. (2002)  The Origin of the Species Retrieved on January 14, 2013 from  http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.html#origin

 Hegel, G.W.F. (1997) The Phenomenology of Spirit Translated by A. V. Miller, Oxford University Press

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2010) Sigmund Freud. Retrieved on January 14. 2013 from  http://www.iep.utm.edu/freud/

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2008) Adam Smith. Retrieved on January 22, 2013 from http://www.iep.utm.edu/smith/

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004) Herbert Spencer. Retrieved on January 22, 2013 from http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/

Douglas Frame metaphysics, political philosophy

The Dialectic of Knowledge


The communist revolutionary forces in China defeated Chiang Kai-shek’s forces and instituted a communist government in 1949. With the overthrow of Kai-shek, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-Tung) assumed control.[1]Mao was a masterful strategist and also an insightful tactician. According to Mao only through “practice”, whether one’s own practice, or through the practice of some other historical figure, can one acquire knowledge. In Mao’s essay “On Practice”[2] he discusses how to act effectively.

Like communists in general, Mao believed that that which was most essential and truly real was matter. According to materialists, the impact of matter on the world drives history. This unfolding of history, and ones impact on it, is determined by an effective interplay between oneself and the changing world. An effective dialectic between one and the world determines ones effectiveness in action.

Theories About the Dialectical Process

The use of forms of the dialectic have a long history. The idea of a dialectic comes early with the Socratic Method.[3] Plato’s dialectic, examined opinion to arrive at truth. Through examination of someone’s position, Socrates would dissect the position and then dispassionately deconstruct it. This was brought about by a give and take dialogue where principles are necessarily derived or discarded based on logical conclusions or contradictions.

While Plato used his dialectic to prove or disprove the truth of someones position, Hegel, an idealist, found that the unfolding of history as spirit, was engaged in a sort of dialectic.[4] While this was not the dialectic of Plato, Hegel’s dialectic theory based on his logical theories, rather than reconciling individuals political and social beliefs like Plato, through history was found a resolution of problems on a grand scale. Unlike materialist communism, Hegel’s grand scheme followed the history of spirit or mind rather than matter coming to know itself through ever expanding knowledge.

Marx, a student of Hegel, rather than embracing Hegel’s idealism, dismissed it. Marx transformed Hegel’s idealism of history, to the physicality of existence. The result was that because of the centrality of matter, the revolutionary change in the productive forces under capitalism was constantly transforming social relations. Marx was a philosopher of action and felt that the academic study of philosophy was largely useless, because it was not applicable to the material conditions in day to day life.

Mao’s Epistemology

Mao, a materialist like Marx, in his essay “On Practice”, develops a system of engagement with the world that is made relevant by one’s ability to effect change, and therefore change the world. Like Marx, Mao thought that if philosophy was to be important, it had to be more than an academic exercise. Mao took Marx’s position of matter driving history, to developing a way of engaging the world, and by doing so he develops a theory of knowledge (e.g., epistemology) which he characterizes as the true scientific method. Mao calls this method the “dialectical-materialist theory of knowledge”.

Mao eschewed empiricism (knowledge based on experience) as being useless in itself. This was because acquired sensory knowledge was subjective, and therefore the perceiver was unable to bring about change. According to Maoist theory, one must instead have a direct, outward looking orientation. Like other rationalists, Mao believed knowledge based on rational principles, is the only reliable way of knowing the world. Mao believed that knowledge ultimately is based on sense perception, but was only useful when it was transformed into rational knowledge, and only then could it be used effectively. How this transition from empirical to rational principles occurred is a matter of debate.

Mao embraced science, and his epistemology, like the scientific method, is if it works (produces useful results) then it is knowledge. If one engages in simply abstract thought without any real word testing, then the truth of one’s philosophical position is unproven. It is necessary for knowledge to be honed in matter, through the application of learned principles in the driven world.

The Importance of the Dialectical Process

According to Mao, only through encounters with the external world can one attain knowledge, and one can not have knowledge until they engage the world. When something does not work effectively, then the strategy is modified until it is effective, and then what is brought about is the advancement of truth.

The dialectical process has been important throughout the history of philosophy. Different philosophers have different ideas about what is essential in a dialectical system. Where one is talking about idealism or materialism, history or ethics, a dialectical system is about the advancement of dynamic knowledge in the personal or public sphere. Whether such order, as shown by dialectics, really exists in the world, or rather is a construct of human logic is uncertain. One can look at the uncertainty of quantum mechanics or the seeming randomness of evolution, and wonder.

Notes

1 Cucchisi, Jennifer Lynn. The Causes and Effects of the Chinese Civil War, 1927-1949. Master’s Thesis Seton Hall University: New Jersey. (2002) http://domapp01.shu.edu/depts/uc/apps/libraryrepository.nsf/resourceid/D907B53FF4DF604F85256E2300524545/$File/Cucchisi-Jennifer-Lynn_Master.pdf?Open

2 Mao Tse-Tung. On Practice: On the Relation Between Knowledge and Practice, Between Knowing and Doing. 1937

Retrieved on September 7, 2011 from http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_16.htm

3 “ The question-and-answer method of philosophizing (dialectic) used by Socrates in Plato’s early dialogues (e.g., Euthyphro} often in conjunction with pretended ignorance (Socratic Irony), whereby a self-professed expert’s over-confident claim to knowledge is subverted.” Ted Honderich ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1995. Socratic Method Page 837.

4 Excerpt from Hegel for Beginners. Retrieved on September 9, 2011 from http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/help/easy.htm

Douglas Frame epistemology, metaphysics

Descartes’ Dualism and the Mind/Body Problem

Descartes formulated the cogito, the idea that because one thinks, they must necessarily exist (“I think therefore I am”). This assertion forms the foundation for his system proving that our sensory perceptions are reliable. This fact is essential for science. Nevertheless there are problems with his system, and there are serious consequences that follow from his propositions.

Descartes is one of the most influential thinkers of modern time. He lived from March 31,1596 – February 11, 1650, and was not only an innovator in philosophy, but also made important contributions to mathematics and physics.

Descartes Rationalism

Descartes was a rationalist. Rationalism is the idea that real knowledge can only be known through reason. This position is not as popular today as empiricism (e.g., the idea that things can only be known through experience). Yet even today there is a tension in science between the rationalist and the empiricist positions. For example it is not known how much of human behavior is innate (e.g., based on rational principles), or is learned (e.g., empirical).

According to Descartes reason exists in the mind independent of the body. The mind according to the rationalist lives on after the body perishes. The body is corporeal and is therefore temporal and spatial. On the other hand the mind is atemporal and aspatial.

According to Descartes knowledge is only reliable if it can be understood through reason by the mind. Knowledge that is known through the body, the five senses, cannot be relied on at all. Examples might be the illusion of water in a desert, or as Descartes states, how do one know that what is perceived is in fact reliable since one may be in fact sleeping? The movie, The Matrix, borrows from this idea of the senses being unreliable. The worldly action in the movie is actually the result of ideas being pumped into the protagonists brain by machines.

The Importance of Descartes Cogito

Descartes wanted to find a way where one can know the sensations of the world are not misleading. Previous to Descartes were the medieval philosophers known as the scholastics. Descartes did not agree with this philosophy; he believed it was the result of unbridled speculative reason, and as a result, he believed that it was unnecessarily complex. So not only could experience be misleading, but unbridled rational speculation was a threat too.

Descartes was a skeptic, and his system set out to reject anything that can’t be determined necessarily veritable. Under this maxim, everything that could possibly be denied as being veritable would in fact be discarded. Descartes thought that this would address the problem of the scholastics, who came to conclusions that did not inerrantly follow from their propositions, as well as the empiricists, who were subject to being mislead by the senses.

The thing that one is most certain of is that one exists. How do people know they exist? People know they exist because they think. Therefore, one has the Cartesian Cogito – “I think therefore I am.” It is impossible to think without existing, that is that which exists necessarily follows from the premise of thought. This is the foundation of Descartes’ system.

He further explains by asserting that one has an idea of perfection for those whom are flawed. How can something flawed conceive of something perfect? The only answer is that which is known through reason is in fact perfect. And how could anything that exists that is perfect be other than God? This is referred to as the Cosmological Argument and serves as what has historically been an effective proof for the existence of God.

If God exists and God is perfect then God would not deceive, so one can know that what one perceives is, at least in some instances, reliable, that is God does not practice deception. Descartes goes on later in his Meditations to buttress his position that what is perceived is reliable.

Cartesian Theory and the Mind/Body Problem

The mind/body problem is also called the problem of dualism. Descartes believed that since the mind is atemporal and aspatial, it is indestructible. Only that which exists in time and is extended in space is destructible. This is why, according to rationalists, reason is innate and everlasting, while knowledge according to the empiricists, is learned over time. Descartes’ position on rationalism formed the foundation for the reliability of science. The emphasis became the scientific rational mind acting on the inert substances of the world. This formed the basis for experimentation.

Ultimately, it is important to remember that Descartes position was epistemological (e.g., based on a theory of knowledge). While his theory was useful, the question becomes apparent that does this idea, the cogito which is useful, really describe reality (e.g., Metaphysics)? This then is the fatal flaw in Descartes’ system. While the cogito is useful epistemologically, is it warranted metaphysically? And if not, then how can one say his system is reasonable at all?

The metaphysical problem with Descartes’ position is known as “The Mind/Body Problem.” How can an aspatial and atemporal mind interface with a spatial and temporal body? To this day, an adequate explanation has not be found to explain this relationship. Descartes himself claimed that the mind interfaces with the body through the Pineal Gland, but he never adequately explained how they interact.

Cartesian Theory and Environmental Degradation

Objectification in science has led to many scientific proofs, but has divorced one from a integral relationship with the world. In considering the foreign inert bodies of the world (including animals) as unimportant and only useful, many of the excesses of technology have resulted in environmental degradation. It is hard to find value in something that does not have a mind and thus cannot think, and is not able to make moral judgments, and therefore cannot be a moral entity worthy of protection.

Sources:

The Rationalists, Discourse on Great Thinkers. Doubleday 1974.

Honderich, Ted. Ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Douglas Frame metaphysics, philosophy of religion, political philosophy

Weltanschauung and the Nature of Self

Introduction

The more individualistic a society is, the more objectivized is its worldview. The more deeply one looks inside oneself, the more resolutely one looks at things external to oneself. This attitude about objectifying the world has produced many great innovations in science, but ultimately our connection with others and the world has suffered.

Nothing is said about the impact on the world of this scientistic attitude. With feelings of superiority and invincibility, with this inward looking hyper-individualism, personal characteristics become paramount. These judgments of moral stature depend on these individualistic attitudes. Because of hyper-individualism, this self- identification is turned outward and objectified. It is similar to what is had in psychology, in the case of reactive formation, but on a more general level, which can impact overall society. This objectification includes attitudes about race, class, gender, and specie, often attributing the worst moral qualities inherent in ones being to others.

Science and Myth

How has the position of hyper-individualism evolved? The cornerstone of science is that all things must be objectified so they can then be quantified. For example if one were to measure the distance to Alpha Centauri, one would construct a triangle measuring the distance between two points on the earth and then triangulate them to find the difference in apparent position of Alpha Centauri in space. One could, through the angle derived, find the distance. This strategy would use tools that existed in the real world, but are ultimately the measure of ideas (e.g., ideas of triangles) using our cognitive space (e.g., the mind) that provides the objectification of spatially disparate entities, in this case the earth and Alpha Centauri.

This objectification in science, with this cognitive space, finds its foundation in the Occident in an objectified God, who dwells in the otherworld or transcendent realm, where He judges and then punishes us and rewards us at his whim. Religious affectations are not necessary for cognitive attitudes. For example the Pythagorean School was originally a mystical cult in ancient times, but now its mathematics are simply used as a useful way of solving problems.

With a personal monotheistic, God we are separate from him, and his actions upon us are tendered, based on our separateness, which his existence delineates. In his transcendent realm, he determines the nature of all thing as his creation; the freedom of humans as an intended outcome of his divine magnificence. It is this independence that determines our freedom to choose in all things, including whether to accept his existence; or to deny him in a sinful act, to reject him. Because we are separate from him and can freely act, we are able to objectify the world.

Occidental Creation Myths and Metaphysics

The philosopher Aristotle (1) refers to that which is primary as the unmoved mover. This attitude results in a dualistic structure of ontology. Aristotle’s God is the prime mover and therefore is uncreated. If there was a creator that created this prime mover (e.g., God), then that God too must to have a creator and so on resulting in an infinite regress or a circular reasoning. Because of Gods ability to create himself, it is easy to draw the conclusion that God is omnipotence, and with omnipotence comes omniscience and omnipresence.

According to believers, in Occidental culture God is perfection. It is my claim that while many do not believe in God as a anthropomorphic entity and reject God, this does not negate the cultural attitude of objectification, individualism and its correlates which are deeply imbedded in culture, that serve as the foundation for capitalism.

Since this God must be unique and permanent, how then must one account for the fact that the world exists separate from the creative impulses of God?  In order to find this, incommensurateness must be found between the thing that creates and the thing that is created. In order for the world to be an object of Gods creation, it must be radically different or rather, in its nature must be completely dissimilar where the Godly realm is spiritual (non-temporal and non-spatial), unlike the Gods of Mount Olympus, and the material realm is that which is spatial and temporal. This positioning, in turn, gives humans the physical and cognitive space, including the freedom to be creative.

This special position of humans is not only as the caretakers of the inert and objectified earth, but are also its exploiters. The predestination of the world results in a sort of lack of accountability, in seeming contradiction to our freedom, and often there is talk in Christian circles about the end times. Nevertheless humans are considered free, and freedom is especially important to Abrahamic culture because of the slavery of the Jews in Egypt and the abuse of the early Christians.

The world becomes a theatre where one acts to establish their credibility in the eyes of the infinite for their entry into heaven along the side of God. The earth is the final way station, unlike in Hinduism, the impersonal God where transmigration occurs. So while we have freedom to act, because of our separation from God, we also are bound by Gods dictates to achieve everlasting life, where life in the world is somehow incomplete. Because of this we have an imperative to act. This serves to buttress our objectification of personality.

The morays traditionally accepted by Occidental societies are not particular to those who are religious but are adopted by Occidental culture in general. We have the ability to be ethical creatures, unfortunately while it is asserted that we have choice, and therefore the capacity to be moral creatures, nearly all tread like cattle to the slaughter.

Individuality

God then is the ultimate spirit whose creative instincts bring life to the universe. There is usually no direct bond posited between God and the world (although weather conditions are sometimes attributed to Gods wrath), except through the Holy Ghost or spirit, which dwells among us. Yet somehow, as Saint Augustine argued, it is the light of God, which sheds light to our minds, where we can then have productive thought (2) that leads us out of the metaphorical darkness. Like a flashlight showing us the way, it is the spirit of God that illuminates our minds enabling us to objectify and quantify things around us. This seems to be primarily the way divine nature finds its way into the world through the intellect. Yet how this connection occurs seems unclear.

Not unlike Augustine, Descartes searched for a basis for thought that emphasized the mind or spirit. Descartes asserted that the way we can know the world without doubt is to find an epistemological basis for certainty of what is perceived (3). This is accomplished by finding an irrefutable basis that the senses are reliable. He begins with his famous cogito I think therefore I am. Like Augustine, with the divine nature of heavens, and the mundane realm of matter, Descartes posits the idea of the separation of mind and body in what is classically called dualism.

By using the Cartesian method one can show without a doubt (ostensibly) that the way things are perceived in the world are known reliably and beyond doubt. These windows of perception (e.g., the eyes, ears, smell) are reliable and can be used in the analysis of the world and therefore knowledge can be acquired through objectification.  This proof of the validity of objectification is the primary contribution Descartes makes to epistemology and provides a foundation of certainty for scientific proofs, and scientific law based on observation and experience.

While Descartes method works well when demonstrating the reliability of observations, for example, using triangles to finding the distance to Alpha Centauri, an epistemological claim, this method tells us nothing about the nature of the relationship between mind and body (e.g., a metaphysical claim). Using this method we can have practical knowledge about the world, but we have no idea about how the mind and body interact. This is primary problem for Descartes metaphysics, which calls into question his epistemology.

Some may claim that the nature of mind and body are not essential in Descartes method, perhaps he was attempting to placate the clerical powers that be. The scientist exemplifies the creative impulse that identifies, cogitates, evaluates, and formulates theories, quanta, paradoxes and scientific laws, superimposed on the objectified world. This sort of examination is made possible by the inspirited self, directed outward or objectified on the seemingly dead or spiritless world. Like the light of Augustine’s flashlight providing cognitive space to know the world, this inspiration in oneself provides us the ability to objectify and therefore quantify existence.

But when one looks at the mind and body one sees two things that are incommensurate. We have the body, which is spatial and temporal, and the mind which is aspatial and atemporal. The two things are opposites and in some ways diametrically opposed. How can these two disparities matter commingle with spirit at all? And if they cannot commingle, how can we say that they interact at all? Where is the point where mind enters and directs matter? In a more general way one might ask, how can the world be objectified at all? Descartes tries to explain this interaction of the two via the route of the pineal gland.

Occidental Culture

Descartes objectification can be applied to provide a light of certainty on the thing being perceived and processes that which were previously unknown. In Occidental culture, the primary creation story in the bible is that God gave Adam dominion over the earth, being the creation of the divine and holy God. This objectification often results in valuing the things that are inspirited over the things that essentially in their nature are devoid of spirit, or are viewed as simply objects (e.g., the world) It is this creation story that brings about our relationship between ourselves and the world. Our assumed relationship between ourselves and God or ones attitudes about science, results in objectification of self. This objectification results in a sort of determinateness in our Weltanschauung or worldview.

In our technocracy, scientism stands as a testament to human’s greatness as inspired beings. There are elements of arrogance in this attitude though. This arrogance has consequences. We now see that the world is warming, and life itself is in danger. This global warming is the result largely of fossil fuel emissions, which has resulted in the rising of the sea level, increasingly toxic air, as well as changes in climate. Because of the advances in science, the population continues to grow, as waste disposal becomes a bigger and bigger problem. Species are becoming extinct because of the displacement of natural habitats and the global ecosystem is thrown into jeopardy. Extracting natural resources has caused the fowling of the air, water from many pollutants including heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and other destructive elements.

Truth is more than solving practical problems. So is this scientific certainly really a benefit to the world at large? Is another way of looking at the world possible?

Indian Metaphysics (4)

At least from a metaphysical perspective, dualism seems indefensible. The scientist takes the position if it works then it is true. Truth is traditionally thought to refer to an ideal, and not something that can be demonstrated through quantification in science. But this pragmatic view about truth does not validate the objectivist’s perspective in science. Talking about how things work, tells us little about the big picture of how things are. Attempts in science are always made to find a final all-inclusive theory but this always fails.

The only other possible alternative to dualism must be non-dualism.  The predominant non-dualist was named Shankara, a mystic in the 8th century in India. In defense of yoga he formalized the system of Advaita Vedanta. Under this system all that is, is Brahman (God). Both the self and the non-self is Brahman. The Brahman within, called Atman, is Brahman as well. In fact all is Brahman according to Hinduism. Ultimately there is no individual self.

Under this ultimate formulation there is no individuality. There is essentially no subjectivity. The changes one sees in the material world are simply the result of illusion.  All life follows Dharma or cosmic law. But ironically in a sort of inversion of materialism in the Occident, that which is most real is the spiritual, while the seeming existence of material is simply a form of error or ignorance (e.g., Maya).

This is counterintuitive. That which is most real seems not to be (e.g., spirit) and that which seems to be most real is not (e.g., the material). While this position may surmount the problem of the mind and body, where the spirits come into the body through the pineal gland to form some sort of odd intermingling, this presentation of Advaita Vedanta seems to have another problem, that is, how does one come to see the spirit as matter and why? Why is this the source of so much error? When someone sees water in the desert where it is dry land, or mistakes a rope for a snake, why are people so often mistaken?

It is clear that it is difficult to find the sensory thread linking ontological Being to individual identity and the resulting social structure whether it is Occidental thought or Hinduism. But ultimately the true metaphysical reality may be irrelevant when ones ideas about self are based on creation myths.

Living in Occidental culture, we have a plethora of knowledge, which depends on the theory of dualism. This has an ancillary effect on ones self-identity and social structure. While dualism and Advaita Vedanta non-dualism, form a philosophical standpoint, both seem indefensible and both rely on skilled apologists. The myths that one is presented about the nature of the otherworld, this world and the stories of ethics and morays abound and inform ones beliefs, character, and by extension, societies structure.

Because of the disparate contradictions between the beliefs of reality as being dualistic or non-dualistic, it seems clear that Indian and Occidental philosophical systems vary substantially, and the impact on social structure is pronounced. For example in India we have the caste system, while in the occident we have the upwardly mobile, supposedly, class system. In Indian thought ones place in society is due to ones karma and one has many lifetimes to work that out. The true nature of reality (either monistic or pluralistic) brings little to bear on individuality or social structure, and that these characteristics, in both India and the Occident, depends on the beliefs we tell ourselves. These stories rest heavily on the ones theory of the nature of reality.

In Indian thought, since all lies in the spiritual realm, the physical world is a place where one works out ones divine nature, where finally this spiritual karma can be released and then can escape rebirth. There seems to be no emphasis or a moral judgment on worldly existence as being separate from the eternal, and transmigration is the attempt of the soul to remediate karma, and eventually escape rebirth. On the other hand, in Occidental culture, the world serves as a proving ground for righteousness and fealty to God.

Individuality and Social Structure

Because we are completely dissimilar to God like mind/matter is different in the theory of dualism, our nature is the image of the fallen from grace. We live in a capitalistic society where we pay lip service to survival of the fittest where God favors those who can achieve and survive. With hyper-individualism, which is ever increasing in intensity in modern day US culture, class prerogative is thought of as being a sign of the blessings of God bestowed on the virtuous. Selfishness rules the day. Objectivizing this attitude of empowerment and superiority (a value judgment) those less blessed are looked upon as being aligned with evil. The poor unfortunates are often looked on as little more than stupid, ugly, worthless, lazy, as well as possessing other dehumanizing characteristics.

The divine characteristics are moral in nature, and demonstrate the evil of the physicality of the lower classes over the beauty and grace of the well to do. This moral degradation with its repulsive physicality is applied to groups dissimilar to those that possess the qualities of purity, brilliance, and power. In the case of Occidental culture, and the US in particular, these qualities of purity, are most often attributed to the wealthy landed white elite. The elite are the best educated and their ability to think, the most highly valued trait in humans, gives them the ability to rationalize their prerogatives.

With the objectification by the elite of their own self-identity with their supposed inspired minds, they can project their own worst qualities outward toward these unfortunates. Like God finding a distinction between his divinity and his mundane creation, the objectivized are often thought of as being of less value and are often discriminated against, imprisoned or often left to die when homeless. It is common to blame the victim for their plight, especially for not following Gods laws, encoded in Occidental law, while embracing evil.

With this attitude, not only are the elite not responsible for the well being of these unfortunates, but also their bias is used through objectification to further buttress the elites moral prerogatives. The forms of discrimination are many, especially racism, classism, sexism and even involve attitudes about nature including species. Without addressing the culture of hyper-individuality and objectification, the planets bounty will become spoiled. Even more important, perhaps, is rigidified world-views, especially those reinforced by the elitists, giving the less fortunate little freedom to assert ones values and goodness in life, because ones righteousness depends on the ability to make virtuous choices.

 

Notes

1)  Aristotle’s Natural Philosophy. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosopy.Retrieved on November 28, 2012 from  http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/#5

2) But distinct from [the objects of the intellect] is the light by which the soul is illumined, in order that it may see and truly understand everything, either in itself or in the light. For the light is God himself, whereas the soul is a creature; yet, since it is rational and intellectual, it is made in his image. And when it tries to behold the Light, it trembles in its weakness and finds itself unable to do so. Yet from this source comes all understanding it is able to attain.Augustine. Bourke, V., Compiler, The Essential Augustine. (Hackett Publishing Company: Indianapolis 1974). Page 97

3)  Descartes, R.,Meditations. in The Rationalists.  Veitch, J trans (Doubleday: New York 1990) 99-175

4)  Radhakrishnan, S., Moore, C., Vedanta in  A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. (Princeton University Press: New Jersey 1957) pages 506-572